A review of People's uses of social networking sites
and gratifications obtained
Descriptive study on
Facebook and Twitter
Facebook and Twitter
By
Hatim Ali Hyder El
Paper submitted as a requirement in course of the subject of a foreign-language media in pre-master
Content
Introduction
Purpose
Methodology/approach
Theoretical background
Communication Research on uses and gratifications
Uses and
gratifications of new media
Uses of social networking
sites and gratifications obtained.
Dimensions of use for friend networking sites
The
Uses
and gratifications of Facebook
The Role of Facebook on Political
Communication
The Motives of using Twitter and gratifications
obtained
Results
References
Introduction
According to the Pew Internet & American Life
Project (Lenhart & Madden, 2007), more than half (55 percent) of all online
American youths are using online social networking sites. Among these online social
networking sites, Twitter is ranked as the fastest-growing site in the member community
category. The number of Twitter users has jumped from 1.22 millions in 2008 to
73.5 millions in
2010 (Liu , Cheung ,
Lee ; 2010 ).
Vansoon's study (2010) showed that half of net users in Britain are members of social networking sites, compared with 27% in France and 33% in Japan and 40% in USA and According
to the statistics made by
Facebook, 52% of users are aged 18-25 , study of Awad ( 2012 ) mentioned
that the number of Arab users of Facebook reached about 15 million, and in
Egypt alone, 3.5 millions as the number of Facebook users are more than readers
of print newspapers ( عوض ، 2012 ) .
Due to the increasing in the size of users of social networking sites Compared to other means, this research will try to find out how the audience use these sites, and
what the gratifications obtained .
Purpose :
The objective of this study is to know why people use social networking sites and the gratifications or benefits that are being obtained
(Go) by using these SNSs , and why
people participate in social networking sites .
Methodology/approach
:
A qualitative approach is employed in this study
with a view to exploring the uses and
gratifications (U and G) that people seek and obtain from the SNS.
Theoretical
background :
Uses and
gratifications theory
U and G theory
is the study of the gratifications or benefits that attract and hold
audiences to
various types of media and the types of content that satisfy their social and
psychological needs (O’Donohoe, 1994; Cantril, 1942). Whilst researchers traditionally
tended to emphasise the effects of media exposure on audiences, U and G theory
espouses the need to consider what people do with media (Rubin, 2002; Ruggiero,
2000; Parker and Plank, 2000; O’Donohoe, 1994; Katz, 1959). This theory has been
applied to a variety of mass media and media content (Dunne,A.
, Anne Lawlor , M. and Rowley, J. ;
2010)
The
purpose of this study is to apply a uses and gratifications approach to investigate
SNS use. Specifically, in: a) motives of SNS users; b) satisfaction of SNS use,
and gratifications obtained by SNS users
.
Communication
Research on uses and gratifications Early
in the history of communication research, the uses and gratifications approach was developed to
study the gratifications that attract and hold an the audiences to the kinds of media and the types of content that
satisfy their social and psychological needs
( Ruggiero , 2000)
The studies of Waples , Berelson , and
Bradshow (1940) ; Herzog (1940,1944) ;Suchman (1942) ; Wolfe and Fiske (1949) ;
Lazarsfeld and Stanton (1942,1944,1949) formulated a list of functions served
either by some specific content or by the medium in questions : to match one's
wits againts others, to get information or advice for daily living, to provide
a framework for one's day , to prepare oneself culturally for the demands of
upward mobility , or to be reassured about
the dignity and usefulness of one's role (Katz , Blumber and Gurevitchi ; 1974
) Katz and Plummer
gave a psychological feature for the theory of uses and gratifications ,It assumes that the audience interact actively and
positively with the media in
order to satisfy its psychological and social needs .
The
theory of uses and gratifications has been studied for more than 60 years.
Instead of asking what media do to people, this theory asks, “What does an
active audience do with the media, why, and with what effect?” (Lasswell,
1948). It assumes that individuals select media and content to fulfill their
needs. Specifically, the theory aims to explain what social or psychological
needs motivate people to engage in a variety of media use behaviors (Katz,
Blumber, & Gurevitch, 1974). As Katz et al. (1974) concluded, the approach
of uses and gratifications concerns “(1) the social and psychological origins
of (2) needs, which generate (3) expectations of (4) the mass media and other
sources, which lead to (5) differential patterns of media exposure (or
engagement in other activities), resulting in (6) need gratifications and (7)
other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones” ( Lineberry , 2012 ).
The theory has been applied to various media, including
newspapers (Elliott & Rosenberg 1987), radio (Mendelsohn 1964), and
television (Babrow 1987), cable television (Heeter & Greenberg 1985), VCR
(Cohen, Levy & Golden 1988), mobile phone (Leung & Wei 2000), email
(Dimmick, Kline & Stafford 2000), the Internet (Stafford, Stafford &
Schkade 2004), virtual community (Cheung & Lee 2009), social network sites
(Cheung et al. 2010; Shi et al. 2009) and mobile services (Nysveen,Pedersen
& Thorbjornsen 2005). (Liu , Cheung , Lee ; 2010 ).
Katz (1987) stated that the early study of the
uses and gratifications has been criticized as: (a) rely heavy on self-report,
(b) too unsophisticated about social origin of the needs that audience brings
to the media, (c) too uncritical of the possible dysfunctions both for self and
society of certain kinds of audience satisfaction, and (d) too captivated by
the inventive diversity of audience uses to pay much attention to the
constraints of the text (Seekhiew ,
2009 ).
Uses
and gratifications of new media
Uses and gratification analyses
have been widely used for the past years for traditional mass media research,
but they are particularly relevant in studying new communication media (Katz
& Rice, 2002; Kraut & Attewell, 1997; Perse & Greenberg-Dunn, 1998;
Rice & Webster, 2002). The active audience approach is very consistent with
the nature of Internet audience, which has vast choices of content and wide
latitude in usage patterns (Choi , Watt
, Park , and Dekkers ; 2004 and website 15 ).
The emergence of
online technologies has re-energized the application of uses and gratification theory for the new media. Compare to the
active users of traditional media, a high
level of interactivity is demanded from users of new media, such as Internet,
blogs, and SNS. The inherent nature of SNS has
changed the communication feature (Ruggiero, 2000). In SNS, users are not only consuming media content, they
are also creating and sharing content. For
example, Facebook users may actively check information from the news feed,
post pictures or words and respond with and receive
feedback. This example also shows users’
activities on SNS are more goal-oriented than those using traditional media.
Therefore, though the theory of uses and
gratifications is applicable for a study of SNS, it requires expanding and retesting.( Lineberry , 2012 )
Uses of networking sites and gratifications obtained
the use of the internet has facilitated relationship building and
communication between individuals One venue for achieving these goals is
networking sites, such as MySpace and Facebook(Thayer & Ray, 2006) Rates of
use are very high with MySpace having over 20 million registered users (CNN,
2006) and Facebook having over 9 million users(Foxnews, 2006).
The online phenomenon of social
networking sites (SNSs) has been consistently growing in popularity over the
past five years (Boyd and Ellison, 2008). SNSs constitute a form of virtual
community, with sites such as Bebo, Facebook , MySpace and Twitter commanding a
vast global following. For example, Facebook and MySpace report in excess of 70
and 50 million active visitors, respectively, on a monthly basis to their sites
( Johnson, 2009). However, whilst SNSs are increasingly becoming a focal topic
in the communications arena, academia has been slow to keep pace with this
continuous growth (Beer, 2008)
( Dunne at el ,
2010 ).
SNSs
are a form of virtual community, with sites such as Bebo, Facebook, Twitter and
MySpace attracting millions of users world wide, many of whom have integrated
the uses of these sites into their daily routines. These sites are based on the
premise of relationship creation and maintenance, either with existing members
of a social circle or connecting people with similar or shared interests (Boyd
and Ellison, 2008). Finin et al. (2005, p. 419) define a social network as an
“explicit representation of the relationship between individuals and groups in
the community”. Elsewhere, Raacke and Bonds-Raacke (2008) indicate that social
networks provide a virtual platform where people of similar interests may
gather to communicate, share and discuss ideas. From a marketing communications
perspective, popular SNS such as Bebo and Facebook constitute brands in their
own right and offer marketers access to substantial information about site
members. Furthermore, SNS offer marketers the facility for engaging in two-way
communication with members in terms of personalised messages and content.
However, it is argued that an effective business model in terms of the commercial
leveraging of SNS continues to elude marketers ( Dunne at el , 2010 )
Social sites allow
individuals or groups to communicate with each other through this virtual
space, when real communication became
too rare .
The
social network profile is the focal point of one’s social networking
existence.Each profile page is unique to the owner and allows its purveyor to
literally “type oneself into being” (Sunden, 2003, p. 3). Each member is
encouraged to upload their personal profile photograph and share a range of
personal information such as where they go to school and details about their
personal tastes, such as favourite movies and music (Boyd, 2007). As users have
total control over the content that they choose to share and the applications
they place on their pages, they can, and usually do, opt to portray themselves
in the most positive light. In essence, this means that a user can aspire to an
ideal-self through his/her SNS profile. Aside from the inclusion of personal
details and photographs, there are two further main components of the social
networking profile – friends and comments (Boyd, 2007). Profiles offer a
facility for communication and interaction between members, usually in the form
of a comments section. Friends also play a fundamental role in the composition
of SNSs. On joining a SNS, users are encouraged to identify others with whom they
wish to form relationships. Once the connection is made, the relationship will
be visually represented on each user’s profile page, under the friends section,
within which there is a facility to nominate one’s top or best 8, 12, 16 or 20
friends, to be listed as such on the user’s main profile page (Boyd, 2007). The
practice of selecting and displaying one’s top friends is referred to by Boyd
and Ellison (2008, p. 213) as “public displays of connection” and is often used
to provide a real statement about who the person is and the company they keep
(Tong et al.,
2008; Liu, 2008; Boyd, 2007). Research to date in this area has focused
overwhelmingly on one’s profile page, primarily regarding how people portray
themselves through their profile page and how they connect with friends and
acquaintances via the network .(Boyd and Ellison, 2008; Tong et al.,
2008; Liu, 2008; Boyd, 2007).
(Dunne et al , 2010 ) highlighted a number of U and
G that were sought (GS) from SNS participation including communication,
entertainment, escapism and the alleviation of boredom, interaction with
the opposite
sex, and information searching .
Study of ( Dunne at el , 2010 ) shown that young girls use
SNS to chat with friends and keep in contact with thier friends, to easily keep
in touch with all thier old friends.
A further and
highly popular theme that frequently emerged in relation to GS was that of
entertainment (GS), the issue of engaging in playground politics (GO) was
raised by a small number of girls in relation to SNS .
Also Dunne found that an SNS user is
very much part of an active audience from the point at which they log on to the
SNS. Activities such as divulging or seeking information, posting comments,
sharing one’s photographs and videos and connecting with new friends As SNS
continue to attract substantial numbers of new and existing members on a daily
basis, user motivations for participating in SNS, and the resulting rewards and
gratifications, represent fertile ground for further exploration ( Dunne at
el , 2010 )
Study conducted by the
University of Texas
2009 reached that
people are using
social networking sites in order to express their
real personalities rather than fictional
portrayals and these sites satisfy their
basic needs to
present themselves to others ( A website , 16 )
.
Zuhair Abed (2012) pointed out that social
networking sites have contributed to activate participation to achieve the
desire of each category with the same interests and activities, also Abed found
that the Motives of use of college students to
social networking sites are : first , for social networking among young people
II: to follow political and social changes in the Arab international world ..
Third: to entertain and spend leisure time عابد , 2012 )) .
Omar Asaad (2011), noted that 97% of Egyptians university students have
displayed their
personal aspects to
all Facebook users, and the
recreational debates occupied
Introduction of discussion of groups joined by university students in the Facebook site and the
content of discussions aimed to
mobilize position collectively
In favor of the idea, also
Asaad found that students tend to
use Facebook in
periods late in
the day and the motivates of their use of Facebook is to connect and
communicate with others and interact with social events and meet
new people and the male tend
to write thoughts and opinions in their
personal pages while females tend
to use Facebook
to communicate with friends and family
.
The study also Confirmed the impact of the use of Facebook on users Societal values positively and negatively (أسعد , 2011 ) .
The study also Confirmed the impact of the use of Facebook on users Societal values positively and negatively (أسعد , 2011 ) .
study of Washington University ( 2011) showed that the
Arab public opinion use social networking
sites in political
participation in order to achieve democracy
and SNS had a significant role in the process of political and social
change and activate the Arab revolutions (المنصور , 2012 ) .
Friend
networking sites allow users to communicate with others utilizing flexible and
varying features such as posting information about themselves on their
profiles, posting pictures, leaving messages, and providing hyperlinks to other
sites (Murphy, 2005).Research also has examined the use of friend networking
sites to hypothetically disclose professor information to students and for
students’ perceptions of this use of friend networking sites. Mazer et al.
(2007) had participants view Facebook profiles for potential professors. The
profiles varied by amount of self-disclosure (high, medium, and low). After
viewing the respective Facebook profile, researchers asked the participants to rate
their anticipated student motivation, affective learning, and classroom
climate. Results indicated that the professor in the high disclosure condition
received higher levels of student motivation, affective learning, and classroom
climate. Students, however, were unsure as to the appropriateness of professors
having Facebook profiles ( Jennifer Raacke and John Raacke , 2010 ) .
There are many reasons why
individuals report using friend networking sites. Raacke and Bonds-Raacke
(2008) found the most common reasons include: “to keep in touch with old
friends,” “to keep in touch with current friends,” “to post / look at
pictures,” “to make new friends,” and “to locate old friends.” Less commonly
reported reasons included: “to learn about events,” “to post social functions,”
“to feel connected,” “to share information about yourself,” “for academic purposes,”
and “for dating purposes.” Results also indicated that users (87% of the
sample) spent over 2.5 hrs per day on friend networking sites with an average
of 235 friends linked to their profiles. Nonusers, who were significantly older
in age than users, reported not having friend networking accounts for the
following main reasons: “I just have no desire to have an account” and “I am
too busy.” Hargittai (2007) also found that users and nonusers varied by age,
ethnicity, and parental educational background ( Jennifer Raacke and John
Raacke , 2010 ).
dimensions of use for friend networking sites
Results
did indeed identify dimensions of use for friend networking sites including the
information dimension, the friendship dimension, and the connection
dimension. The reasons in the information dimension were related to using friend
networking sites to gather and share information (e.g., to post social
functions, to learn about events, and to share information about yourself).
This dimension is a logical one considering how the features of friend
networking sites allow users to easily post and share information that will be
available to many viewers simultaneously. Individuals who utilize friend
networking sites for reasons in this dimension are thus obtaining gratification
from gathering and sharing of information related to themselves and others. The
reasons in the friendship dimensions were conceptually related to sustaining friendships.
In order words, users reported that having friend networking sites allowed them
to keep in touch with both old and new friends and to locate old friends. In
fact, friend networking sites may be one of the easiest and fastest ways
possible to locate old friends. Finally, the reasons in the connection
dimension were related to making connections with others by using these
websites. Reasons in this dimension included to make new friends, to find a
significant other, and to feel connected in general. Future research should
investigate how users of friend networking sites vary in regards to each of the
dimensions. For example, do different types of users have accounts on friend networking
sites for reasons in different dimensions?
Factor analysis determined
what, if any, underlying structures existed for measuring the following 11
variables: to keep in touch with current friends, to keep in touch with old
friends, to make new friends, to locate old friends, for dating purposes, to
feel connected, to learn about events, to share information about yourself, to
post/look at pictures, for academic purposes, and to post social functions.
Prior to analysis, two outliers were eliminated. Principal components analysis
was conducted utilizing a varimax rotation. The analysis produced a
three-component solution, which was evaluated on the following criteria:
eigenvalue, variance, and scree plot. Criteria indicated a three-component
solution was appropriate.. After rotation, the first component accounted for
21.97% of the total variance, the second component accounted for 43.93% of the
total variance, and the third component accounted for 63.24% of the total
variance. Table 1 presents the loadings for each component. Component number 1
consisted of 5 of the 11 variables: to post social functions, to learn about
events, to share information about yourself, for academic purposes, and to
post/look at pictures. These variables had positive loadings and were called
the Information Dimension. The second component included 3 of the 11
variables: to keep in touch with old friends, to keep in touch current friends,
and to locate old friends. These variables had positive loadings and were
called the Friendship Dimension.
The final component included 3 of the 11
variables: for dating purposes, to make new friends, and to feel connected.
These variables had positive loadings and were called the Connection
Dimension ( Jennifer Raacke and John Raacke , 2010 ) .
The
Facebook
the
site that accounted for the acceptance and response of many people, especially
young people in all parts of the world, there are those who benefited from it
to communicate with pictures and files and chat with friends and there was some
exploitation in the bad side.
Facebook .com is a social networking Web site
that allows members to share personal information, opinions, and media. When it
launched in February 2004, Facebook began as a community solely for college students.
Membership has since been opened to anyone with an e-mail address and members
can affiliate themselves with an ever-increasing number of networks – from academic
institutions to cities to employers , Otaibi's study (2008) Indicated that the
spread of Facebook
among college students estimated 77%, and that the motives used by
students are :to identify
facebook and spend time (( القطيبي , 2008 .
Uses and gratifications of Facebook
Each member has a home page to post
information such as birth date, interests, employment, and favorite books. Members
can communicate privately with each other via “messages” or publicly via posts
on another member’s “wall”. Other features include “groups” and “events”, each
with a home page displaying descriptions, pictures, and a message board. Groups
can be public with open membership, public with closed membership, or private.
Group administrators can send out messages to all members of a group. Events
are almost like temporary groups with the same options for membership criteria.
Events allow members to invite others to participate in activities such as rallies,
parties, meetings, or even simultaneous, but distant, celebrations. Both groups
and events allow members from different communities to come together for a
common cause, interest, belief, or gathering. Facebook members can support a
political candidate, but they can also show their
stance on a particular issue. For example, thousands of Facebook members have
joined pro-choice3 or pro-life4 groups. Political communication among Facebook
members
( Westling , 2007 ).
Fawzia Al Harbi 2011 noted
that Saudi girls
primarily discuss their issues of social
and emotional through
Facebook and also
use Facebook to
shop and to participate in society
and Elvis satisfy
their needs in
social and personal
integration and cognition (الحربي , 2011 ).
Study of Hosni Awad (2012)
indicated that Facebook is working to increase interaction and
communication between communities and young people
use it in the
form of friendship and Continuation social relationships ( عوض ,
2012).
The role of Facebook on Political Communication
The
Facebook feature most often utilized for political communication is the
“groups” function. Members can create their own themed groups on any topic and
invite other members to join. In groups, members can post to message boards,
add pictures, and post news and links.
Another Facebook feature relevant to
political discussion is the ability to “share” a news story, video, or Web page
with other members. Along with the link and a short summary, members can include
comments. Other members can then comment on the “share” and give their own
opinions or provide supplemental sources of information. This is a newer
feature for Facebook and it has the potential to move stories around a network
of people in a viral manner.
Facebook
as a mobilizing tool
The
greatest benefit that Facebook has provided to candidates thus far is the means
to mobilize and organize thousands of supporters. Even before Barack Obama
announced his candidacy for president, the Facebook group “Barack Obama for
President in 2008” had accumulated over 50,000 members. Another group, “Barack Obama
(One Million Strong for Barack),” gathered 200,000 members in less than three
weeks. (Westling, 2007 )
In
Egypt , According to A
report of (Techno Wireless) about the size of the
increase in the use of three sites
(Facebook and Twitter), in
addition to the site (YouTube) had a major impact in the popular uprising the report Indicated that "The number of users (Facebook) before (25)
January was (4.2) million but rose 23.8%
after the revolution to (5.2) million, while the (Twitter) was the number of users before the revolution (26 800) user increased then to
(44 200), "on the (YouTube) report said : that during the
first week of
the revolution has
been viewed (8.7)
million pages on
the site by users Egyptians,
this number came despite
Egyptian authorities cut Internet services in
all corners of
the country from (28)
January until the
first of February (A website , 17 )
The twitter
This site takes its
name from the term (tweets), which means (Twitter), and took the sparrow a
symbol, a mini-service, and may be called a intense summarized text for many details .
The Motives of using Twitter and gratifications obtained .
Building on the existing literature, we have
proposed eight motives of using Twitter. The eight motives include
self-documentation, information sharing, social interaction, entertainment,
passing time, self-expression, medium appeal, and convenience. Motivation can
be referred as a user’s pre-use expectation towards an information system.
Disconfirmation is defined as the discrepancy between a user’s expectation and
perceived performance of the system/service, is considered to have a strong impact
on user’ gratification. Peters (2007) structured gratifications into three
categories: content gratification, process gratification, and social
gratification. In the current investigation of Twitter usage, it is reasonable
to include technology gratification for new media. Integrating the expectation disconfirmation
theory with the motivations of using Twitter, content gratifications, process gratifications,
social gratifications, and technology gratifications are represented by the disconfirmations
of motivations respectively (as shown in Table 2).
Content gratification is derived from the
use of mediated messages for their direct, substantive intrinsic value for the
receiver (Cutler & Danowski, 1980). Content gratification is purposeful use
of media (like in instrumental use). As mentioned before, we identified two
types of disconfirmations of motivations that will derive content
gratification, including the disconfirmation of self-documentation and the
disconfirmation of information sharing. Thus, content gratification of Twitter
resides in content of the information carried through Twitter. If a user’s
perceived quality of the information carried by Twitter is higher than or the
same as his pre-use expectation, he will be satisfied with the content
gratification and will thus continue to use Twitter.
The results of some studies indicated that
the positive content gratification and technology gratification all significantly
affect users’ continuance intention to use Twitter which is mediated by their
satisfaction with Twitter. Content gratification was presented by the
disconfirmation of information sharing and the disconfirmation of
self-documentation. Technology gratification was explained by the disconfirmation
of medium appeal and the disconfirmation of convenience. The findings imply that
Twitter fulfils users’ needs for self-documentation, information sharing,
medium appeal and convenience. The motivation of information sharing stresses
the satisfaction gained from providing information to others in Twitter.
Meanwhile, information needs can be met by sharing one’s collection as a
byproduct of self-documentation in Twitter. The motivation of medium appeal
refers to ubiquitous accessibility, independent of the user’s location and time
of access provided by Twitter. Ubiquitous access of Twitter provides user a
convenient environment, while the suitable platform designed by Twitter meets
the motivation of convenience. In contrast, the positive process gratification
and social gratification does not exhibit any significant impact on user satisfaction.
The results may be explained by the characteristics of Twitter. Twitter was
designed for sharing and seeking information; the function of interacting with
friends was not included in the main design direction. As a result, Twitter
does not fulfil the motivation of social interaction. The social gratification
of Twitter is less significant in explaining user satisfaction. As useful
information is the main purpose for people to use Twitter, it does not dedicate
to develop functions for fun. Twitter does not provide an entertainment
environment for play. Therefore, the process gratification was not significant
to users’ satisfaction with the use of Twitter (Liu , Cheung , Lee ; 2010
) .
Results
1- SNS users are very much part of an active
audience from the point at which they log on to the SNS Activities include
divulging or seeking information, posting comments, sharing one’s photographs
and videos and connecting with new friends .
2- There are many reasons why
individuals report using friend networking sites. Including: “to keep in touch
with old friends,” “to keep in touch with current friends,” “to post / look at
pictures,” “to make new friends,” and “to locate old friends.” Less commonly
reported reasons included: “to learn about events,” “to post social functions,”
“to feel connected,” “to share information about yourself,” “for academic
purposes,” and “for dating purposes" .
3- SNS satisfy their
basic people needs to present themselves
to others .
4- The
greatest benefit that Facebook has provided to candidates thus far is the means
to mobilize and organize thousands of supporters
5- there are eight motives of
using Twitter. include self-documentation, information sharing, social
interaction, entertainment, passing time, self-expression, medium appeal, and
convenience
6- There is a
dearth of Arab studies
about uses and
gratifications of SNS and mostly focused
on students or
young people .
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فلسطين .
12- عمرو محمد أسعد ، (2011) , العلاقة بين استخدام الشباب المصري لمواقع
الشبكات الإجتماعية وقيمهم المجتمعية ، دراسة على موقعي الـ فيس بوك والـ
يوتيوب ، رسالة دكتوراه ، كلية الإعلام ، جامعة القاهرة ، مصر .
13- فوزية الحربي (1433هـ) ، استخدامات الفتيات السعوديات للفيس
بوك ، دراسة مسحية على عينة من طالبات المرحلة الثانوية في مدينة الرياض
،رسالة ماجستير غير منشورة ، كلية الدعوة
والإعلام ،جامعة الإمام محمد بن سعود ، السعودية .
14- محمد المنصور ، (2012) , تأثير شبكات التواصل الإجتماعي على جمهور
المتلقين ، دراسة مقارنة للمواقع الإجتماعية والمواقع الإلكترونية
"العربية أنموذجا" ، رسالة ماجستير غير منشورة ، كلية الأداب والتربية ،
الأكاديمية العربية في الدنمارك .
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